On June 25, 985 CE, the sacred city of Thanjavur witnessed the coronation of a ruler who would redefine the idea of kingship in South India. Known in his youth as Arulmozhi Varman, the third son of Parantaka II (Sundara Chola) and Vanavan Mahadevi, he ascended the Chola throne as Rajaraja Chola I—a name that would soon echo from the Western Ghats to the shores of Southeast Asia.
Born around 947 CE, Rajaraja inherited a kingdom recovering from years of internal conflict. The Pandya and Chera wars had drained its wealth, and rival powers ruled the southern seas. Yet, the Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscription records that his predecessor, Uttama Chola, recognized greatness in the young prince and chose him as heir, seeing in him both courage and wisdom. That foresight would soon reshape history.
The Making of an Emperor
As a young prince, Arulmozhi Varman joined his father and generals on expeditions across southern Tamil Nadu. There, he observed the discipline of the Kaikkolapperumbadai, the Chola standing army. Those early lessons taught him that power lay not just in bravery, but in precision and organization—principles that would later define his reign.
When Rajaraja ascended the throne in 985 CE, the empire faced threats on all sides. To the west, the Cheras dominated the Arabian Sea trade. To the south, the Pandyas were rebelling. To the north, the Chalukyas watched for weakness. Rajaraja’s approach was calm and calculated—he would strengthen his navy, fortify his administration, and expand with purpose.
The Battle of Kandalur Salai (988 CE)
Rajaraja’s first great victory came at sea. In 988 CE, he launched a bold naval assault against the Chera fleet at Kandalur Salai (near modern-day Vizhinjam, Kerala). The Cheras had long ruled the western coast, but Rajaraja’s fleet, built and led under his command, destroyed their ships and harbor in a decisive battle.
Inscriptions honor him with the title “Kandalur Salai Kalam Arutharulina Devan”—“the king who destroyed the fleet at Kandalur Salai.” This victory was more than military triumph; it was a declaration that the Cholas now ruled the seas. As Nilakanta Sastri noted, it marked “the first organized use of naval power by an Indian ruler to secure maritime trade routes.”
The Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas
After Kandalur, Rajaraja moved inland between 989 and 992 CE, defeating Bhaskara Ravi Varma Tiruvadi and taking control of key ports and trading towns across central and northern Kerala.
He then turned south toward the Pandyas of Madurai. The Senur inscription records how he captured Madurai, destroyed the Pandya capital, and annexed Kollam. For this conquest, he took the title “Pandya Kulashani”—the thunderbolt to the Pandyas—and renamed the territory Rajaraja Mandalam.
With the Cheras and Pandyas subdued, Rajaraja now claimed the triple crown of South India and proudly called himself “Mummudi Chola”—the emperor who wore the three crowns of the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras.
The Ceylon Expedition (993 CE)
Across the Palk Strait, the island of Lanka was torn by political chaos. Its ruler, Mahinda V, had lost control to mercenaries, leaving the kingdom vulnerable. In 993 CE, Rajaraja launched a massive naval invasion that changed the island’s history.
His forces crossed the strait, swiftly advancing through the northern plains. The ancient city of Anuradhapura, which had stood for over a thousand years, was destroyed. In its place rose a new provincial capital, Polonnaruva, renamed Jananathamangalam.
Northern Sri Lanka was annexed as Mummudi Chola Mandalam, marking one of the earliest examples of successful overseas expansion by an Indian empire.
The Western Deccan Wars — Gangavadi and Nolambapadi
Rajaraja’s ambitions soon turned inland again. Between 1000 and 1005 CE, he marched into the Western Ganga country (Gangavadi) and Nolambapadi in modern Karnataka—regions under Chalukya control. His army, the formidable Munrukai Mahasenai (threefold forces of infantry, cavalry, and elephants), overpowered resistance and secured the empire’s western borders, gaining control over trade routes connecting the coast to the interior.
The Vengi and Kalinga Campaigns
Next came the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, where a succession crisis had created political instability. Rajaraja intervened diplomatically, supporting Saktivarman and later Vimaladitya, ensuring Chola influence over the Godavari delta.
His sister Kundavai married Vimaladitya, sealing a powerful alliance between the two dynasties. Soon after, his generals marched north into Kalinga (Odisha), bringing coastal chiefs under Chola tribute. From Cape Comorin to Bengal, the eastern coastline now carried the Chola flag, symbolizing an empire united by land and sea.
The Chola Army and Navy
Under Rajaraja, the Chola military became an organized and loyal institution. Inscriptions mention 31 regiments, which later expanded to 70. The elite Velaikkarar corps served as personal guards of the king, taking sacred oaths to protect him even at the cost of their lives.
The Chola navy, however, was Rajaraja’s true masterpiece. Ships like kalam, odam, sangara, and colandia sailed from ports such as Nagapattinam, Kayalpattinam, and Periapattinam, carrying merchants, envoys, and warriors alike. Under his reign, the Bay of Bengal was proudly called the “Chola Lake.”
The Visionary Administrator
Rajaraja was not just a conqueror; he was a reformer. Guided by his wise sister Kundavai, he replaced hereditary nobles with appointed officials, strengthening royal authority. He ordered a comprehensive land survey, dividing the empire into Valanadus to improve taxation and local governance.
Temples served as both spiritual and administrative centers. Every donation and expenditure was carved onto temple walls to ensure transparency. Nilakanta Sastri described this system as “a marvel of precision and civic participation unparalleled in early medieval administration.”
Coins of a Golden Age
Before Rajaraja, Chola coins bore the tiger emblem with the fish and bow of conquered neighbors. He introduced a new design—one side showing a standing king, and the other a seated goddess of prosperity. These coins circulated across South India and even appeared in Sri Lanka, symbolizing both wealth and royal authority.
A Builder of Eternity — The Brihadisvara Temple
Among Rajaraja’s many achievements, none surpasses the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur. Construction began in 1003 CE and was completed in 1010 CE. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, it stands at 190 feet, crowned by an 80-ton granite dome that continues to awe visitors over a millennium later.
The temple is a living archive. Over 1,000 inscriptions detail land grants, temple staff, donations, and musicians—showcasing the intricate blend of devotion, art, and governance. Nilakanta Sastri called it “the grandest monument to the imperial Cholas’ conception of divinity and duty.”
Art, Faith, and Cultural Renaissance
Though a devout Shaivite, Rajaraja supported Vaishnavite and Buddhist establishments, including a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam. Under his reign, Chola bronze casting reached its zenith, producing the timeless Nataraja in Ananda Tandava, a sculpture that embodied the cosmic rhythm of creation and destruction.
Temples became centers of learning, dance, and music. The detailed inscriptions of his era remain vital to our understanding of Tamil society and culture.
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The Emperor and His Empire
At its height, Rajaraja’s empire stretched from the Kaveri delta to northern Sri Lanka, and from the Malabar Coast to the Tungabhadra. Trade flourished under his watch—Arabian, Chinese, and Southeast Asian merchants frequented Chola ports, turning them into hubs of global commerce.
His vision united religion, administration, and prosperity in perfect harmony. For him, the temple, the throne, and the treasury were pillars of a single, divine order.
The Final Years and Legacy
In 1012 CE, Rajaraja crowned his son Rajendra I as co-ruler, ensuring stability for the empire he had built. Two years later, in 1014 CE, he passed away—leaving behind not only an empire of land and sea, but a system of governance that would inspire rulers for centuries.
As Nilakanta Sastri beautifully wrote,
“Rajaraja I transformed the Chola realm into an empire and the Bay of Bengal into a bridge between India and the world.”
A Legacy Carved in Stone and Sea
Rajaraja’s story is one of balance—of conquest guided by vision, and faith shaped by intellect. His coins, inscriptions, and temples continue to speak of a ruler who built not just walls of granite, but an empire of ideas.
The Brihadisvara Temple still stands, its towering vimana rising like a silent tribute to the emperor whose spirit endures in every stone.
Even a thousand years later, his name lives on—in art, in literature, and in legend. From Kalki’s Ponniyin Selvan to the silver screen, Rajaraja Chola I remains the symbol of the warrior-statesman who made the seas his empire and justice his creed.